The theistic traditions, while they may have their own pathologies, at least maintain the proper categorical distinction between finite and infinite, relative and absolute.

The „man creating God‟ process follows a predictable pattern:

1. Rejection of objective transcendent meaning
2. Vacuum creates unbearable existential anxiety
3. Substitution with finite good elevated to ultimate status
4. Rationalization through intellectual systems that justify the new „god‟
5. Evangelization to resolve cognitive dissonance through mass conversion

This explains why materialist ideologies become so aggressive—they’re not just philosophical positions but desperate attempts to create meaning ex nihilo.

• Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (honorary primacy)
• Church of Greece
• Maintains Greek liturgical tradition
• Strong theological scholarship tradition
• Mount Athos monastic republic

Russian Orthodox

• Largest Orthodox Church (100+ million)
• Moscow Patriarchate claims leadership role
• Survived Soviet persecution, now state-favored
• Strong mystical/ascetical tradition
• Politically influential in post-Soviet states

Serbian Orthodox

• Survived Ottoman rule, Austrian-Hungarian period
• Strong national identity component
• Significant role in Yugoslav wars
• Maintains traditional liturgy and practices

Other Major Churches:

• Romanian Orthodox (second largest)
• Bulgarian Orthodox
• Georgian Orthodox
• Antiochian Orthodox (Middle East)
• Orthodox Church in America (autocephalous status disputed)

• Sola scriptura, sola fide, sola gratia
• Justification by faith alone
• Consubstantiation (real presence without transubstantiation)
• Two Kingdoms doctrine (spiritual vs. temporal authority)

Major Branches:

• Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod (conservative)
• Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (liberal)
• Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (very conservative)

• TULIP: Total depravity, Unconditional election, Limited atonement, Irresistible grace, Perseverance of saints
• Predestination: Double predestination to salvation/damnation
• Covenant Theology: God’s covenant relationship with humanity
• Presbyterian Polity: Representative church government

Major Branches:

• Presbyterian Church (USA) (liberal)
• Presbyterian Church in America (conservative)
• Orthodox Presbyterian Church (very conservative)
• Dutch Reformed Church

• Break from Rome over papal authority, not initially doctrine
• Book of Common Prayer (Thomas Cranmer)
• 39 Articles (doctrinal standards)
• Via Media (middle way between Catholicism and Protestantism)

Major Branches:

• Church of England (established church)
• Episcopal Church USA (liberal)
• Anglican Church in North America (conservative)
• Sydney Anglican (evangelical)

• Believer’s Baptism (by immersion, adults only)
• Congregational Polity (local church autonomy)
• Biblical Inerrancy (most groups)
• Salvation by Faith Alone

Major Branches:

• Southern Baptist Convention (largest Protestant denomination in US)
• American Baptist Churches USA (more liberal)
• Independent Fundamental Baptist (very conservative)
• Primitive Baptist (hyper-Calvinist)

• Arminianism: Free will, universal atonement
• Prevenient Grace: God enables response to gospel
• Christian Perfection: Possibility of sinless perfection
• Social Gospel: Emphasis on social justice

Major Branches:

• United Methodist Church (largest, liberal)
• African Methodist Episcopal
• Free Methodist Church (conservative)
• Wesleyan Church (holiness movement)

• Baptism in Holy Spirit (distinct from salvation)
• Speaking in Tongues (glossolalia)
• Divine Healing
• Prosperity Gospel (some groups)

Major Branches:

• Assemblies of God (largest organized Pentecostal)
• Church of God in Christ (largest black Pentecostal)
• International Church of the Foursquare Gospel
• Oneness Pentecostals (reject Trinity)

• Pope of Alexandria (currently Tawadros II)
• Survived Islamic conquest, Ottoman rule
• Strong monastic tradition (Desert Fathers heritage)
• Significant persecution in modern Egypt
• Ancient liturgical language (Coptic)

Armenian Apostolic

• Catholicos of All Armenians (Echmiadzin)
• First nation to officially adopt Christianity (301 CE)
• Survived Ottoman persecution, Armenian Genocide
• Strong cultural-religious identity
• Distinctive architecture and art

Ethiopian Orthodox

• Abune (Patriarch of Ethiopia)
• Unique practices: Saturday Sabbath, circumcision, dietary laws
• Influenced by Jewish traditions
• Kebra Nagast (Glory of Kings) – claims Solomonic lineage
• Survived Islamic expansion, Italian occupation

Other Oriental Orthodox:

• Syriac Orthodox (Middle East)
• Malankara Orthodox (India)
• Eritrean Orthodox

• Continuing Revelation: Living prophets receive new revelation
• Book of Mormon: Additional scripture to Bible
• Three Degrees of Glory: Celestial, terrestrial, telestial kingdoms
• Eternal Progression: Humans can become gods
• Baptism for the Dead: Vicarious ordinances

Major Branches:

• Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Utah-based, largest)
• Community of Christ (Missouri-based, formerly RLDS)
• Fundamentalist LDS (polygamous offshoots)

Controversial Aspects:

• Polytheism: Multiple gods, God was once human
• Additional Scripture: Pearl of Great Price, Doctrine & Covenants
• Temple Rituals: Secret ceremonies, masonic influences
• Changing Doctrines: Racial restrictions, polygamy reversals

• Non-Trinitarian: Jesus is created being, Holy Spirit is force
• Arianism: Jesus subordinate to Father
• 144,000 Anointed: Only they go to heaven
• Earthly Paradise: Most faithful live on restored earth
• Blood Transfusion Prohibition

Organizational Structure:

• Watchtower Society: Governing body claims divine authority
• Theocratic Ministry: Door-to-door evangelism required
• Disfellowshipping: Shunning of former members
• End Times: Repeated failed predictions of Armageddon

• Aquinas’s Position: Christ established Peter as head of Church (Matthew 16:18-19)
• Against Orthodox: Collegiate system cannot provide doctrinal unity
• Historical Argument: Early councils required papal confirmation
• Practical Problem: Orthodox churches split along national lines

2. Filioque Clause

• Aquinas’s Defense: Holy Spirit proceeds from Father „and Son‟ (filioque)
• Theological Argument: Maintains distinction between Son and Spirit
• Against Orthodox: „From Father alone‟ makes Son and Spirit too similar
• Scriptural Support: John 15:26, 16:7 show Son’s role in Spirit’s mission

3. Clerical Celibacy

• Aquinas’s Support: Celibacy allows complete dedication to ministry
• Against Married Priests: Divided loyalties between family and flock
• Theological Argument: Priests represent Christ, who was celibate
• Practical Advantage: Prevents hereditary church offices

• Aquinas’s Critique: Scripture requires authoritative interpretation
• Against Private Judgment: Leads to endless divisions and heresy
• Historical Argument: Church preceded and determined biblical canon
• Logical Problem: Scripture doesn’t teach sola scriptura

2. Justification by Faith Alone

• Aquinas’s Position: Faith must be accompanied by charity (love)
• Against Luther: Faith without works is dead (James 2:26)
• Theological Argument: Justification involves real transformation, not just imputation
• Sacramental Necessity: Baptism actually removes original sin

3. Predestination (Calvinism)

• Aquinas’s Critique: Double predestination makes God author of evil
• Against Limited Atonement: Christ died for all humanity
• Free Will Defense: God’s grace enables but doesn’t compel response
• Scriptural Support: 1 Timothy 2:4 – God wills all to be saved

• Apostasy Theory: Church could not fail completely (Matthew 16:18)
• Against Polytheism: One God in three persons, not multiple gods
• Biblical Sufficiency: No need for additional revelations
• Historical Continuity: No evidence of total apostasy

2. Against Jehovah’s Witnesses

• Trinity Defense: Jesus is truly God (John 1:1, 8:58)
• Against Arianism: Condemned at Nicaea (325 CE)
• Scriptural Interpretation: Watchtower translations distort Greek text
• Organizational Critique: False prophets by biblical standards

• Shows how Catholic doctrine harmonizes faith and reason
• Demonstrates logical problems in Protestant/Orthodox positions
• Uses Aristotelian framework to clarify theological concepts

2. Historical Continuity

• Argues for unbroken apostolic succession
• Shows development of doctrine rather than corruption
• Demonstrates Catholic Church’s unique authority claims

3. Scriptural Interpretation

• Uses Church Fathers and councils for authoritative interpretation
• Shows how Catholic practices flow from scriptural foundations
• Demonstrates dangers of private interpretation

4. Sacramental Theology

• Shows how Catholic sacraments convey grace ex opere operato
• Critiques Protestant reduction of sacraments to symbols
• Demonstrates necessity of ordained priesthood

Aquinas’s approach treats Eastern Orthodox with more respect (as preserving apostolic succession) than Protestants (who broke succession) or Restorationists (who claim false revelations), but maintains Catholic superiority in all cases through philosophical rigor and historical continuity.

Core Gnostic Themes: The material world results from a cosmic catastrophe involving the fall of divine emanations (aeons) from the perfect spiritual realm (pleroma). A lesser deity or demiurge (often identified with the Hebrew God) creates the material world as a prison for divine sparks trapped in human souls. Salvation comes through gnosis – direct revelation of one’s true divine nature and the means of escape from material bondage.

Valentinian Gnosticism developed elaborate mythologies describing the fall of Sophia (Wisdom) and the resulting creation of the material world. They taught that humanity contains three classes: spiritual (pneumatic), psychic, and material, with only the spiritual capable of achieving salvation through gnosis.

Sethian Gnosticism emphasized the figure of Seth (Adam’s son) as the progenitor of the spiritual race. They developed complex cosmologies involving multiple heavens, divine emanations, and the spiritual journey through celestial realms.

Mandaean Tradition (surviving in Iraq/Iran) maintains ancient Gnostic practices including baptismal rituals, esoteric texts, and emphasis on the soul’s ascent through hostile planetary spheres to reach the world of light.

Cosmological Dualism: Manichaeism taught absolute dualism between the Kingdom of Light (ruled by the Father of Greatness) and the Kingdom of Darkness (ruled by the Prince of Darkness). These realms existed eternally in opposition, with the material world resulting from their cosmic conflict.

Anthropological Dualism: Humans contain both light particles (soul) trapped in dark matter (body). The light elements seek reunion with their divine source, while dark elements resist spiritual liberation. This creates fundamental conflict within human nature between spiritual and material impulses.

Soteriological System: Salvation involves liberating light particles through ascetic practices, vegetarianism, and avoidance of procreation (which further traps light in matter). The religion included elaborate hierarchies of elect (perfect practitioners) and hearers (lay followers) with different spiritual obligations.

Dualistic Cosmology: Cathars taught that the material world was created by Satan (the demiurge) in opposition to the good God who rules the spiritual realm. They viewed the Hebrew Bible as largely the work of the evil creator, while accepting New Testament teachings about spiritual salvation.

Anthropological Teachings: Humans possess divine souls trapped in material bodies created by the evil principle. The soul’s goal is escape from the cycle of reincarnation through spiritual purification and rejection of material attachments.

Religious Practice: Catharism distinguished between perfecti (the perfect) who received the consolamentum (spiritual baptism) and practiced extreme asceticism, and credentes (believers) who supported the perfect while living ordinary lives. The perfecti avoided meat, sexual activity, and material possessions while dedicating themselves to prayer and spiritual instruction.

Zurvanite Zoroastrianism (Sassanid period) posited Zurvan (Infinite Time) as the ultimate principle who gave birth to twin spirits: Ahura Mazda (good) and Angra Mainyu (evil). This created a more symmetrical dualism where good and evil derive from a common transcendent source.

Manichaean Interpretations: Some Zoroastrian traditions, particularly those influenced by Manichaeism, emphasized the cosmic struggle between light and darkness as fundamental features of reality rather than temporary conditions to be resolved.

Metaphysical Dualism: Certain interpretations viewed spirit and matter as fundamentally opposed principles, with the material world representing the realm of evil and spiritual salvation requiring escape from material existence.

He would oppose their understanding of matter as inherently evil, arguing instead that all being, including material existence, is fundamentally good as created by God. His doctrine of creation ex nihilo would directly contradict their emanationist cosmologies and the notion that matter results from divine error or fall.

Aquinas would challenge their elitist soteriology, arguing that salvation is available to all humans through divine grace, not restricted to those possessing special gnosis. He would contend that their emphasis on esoteric knowledge over faith and good works contradicts the accessibility of divine truth through natural reason and revelation.

He would particularly oppose their docetistic Christology (Christ only appeared to have a material body), arguing that genuine incarnation requires the hypostatic union of divine and human natures, including true material embodiment.

He would challenge their absolute dualism by arguing that evil is not a positive substance but rather the privation of good. His doctrine of evil as privatio boni would directly contradict their understanding of darkness as a positive competing principle with light.

Aquinas would oppose their understanding of the material world as inherently evil, arguing instead that material creation is good as the work of divine wisdom. He would contend that their extreme asceticism reflects a fundamental misunderstanding of the proper relationship between soul and body.

He would challenge their deterministic anthropology, arguing that humans possess free will and can choose between good and evil, rather than being predetermined by their possession of light or dark particles.

He would challenge their understanding of the material world as Satan’s creation, arguing instead that God created all things good, including matter. Their rejection of marriage and procreation would be seen as contrary to natural law and divine blessing of human fertility.

Aquinas would oppose their doctrine of reincarnation as contradicting the unity of soul and body and the resurrection of the dead. He would argue that individual souls are created directly by God and achieve their final destiny through judgment, not through cycles of rebirth.

He would challenge their two-tier system of perfecti and credentes, arguing that Christian perfection is a goal for all believers, not restricted to a spiritual elite practicing extreme asceticism.

He would challenge their understanding of good and evil as co-eternal principles, arguing instead that evil is the privation of good and cannot exist as an independent metaphysical principle. Their symmetrical dualism would be seen as philosophically incoherent.

Aquinas would oppose their interpretation of the cosmic struggle as fundamental to reality’s structure, arguing instead that divine providence governs all events toward ultimate good, and that apparent evil serves larger purposes in divine wisdom.

The Problem of Evil: He would argue that these traditions, in attempting to solve the problem of evil by positing evil principles, actually create greater philosophical problems. His doctrine of evil as privation provides a more coherent explanation that preserves divine goodness and omnipotence.

Matter and Creation: Aquinas would consistently oppose their denigration of material existence, arguing that matter is good as created by God and that the soul-body unity reflects divine wisdom rather than cosmic error.

Salvation and Grace: He would contend that dualistic systems, by emphasizing esoteric knowledge or extreme asceticism, neglect the necessity of divine grace and the accessibility of salvation through faith, hope, and charity.

Epistemological Critique: He would argue that these traditions demonstrate how human reason, when separated from divine revelation and proper philosophical method, can construct elaborate but fundamentally false systems that lead away from rather than toward truth.

Christological Objections: Against Gnostic and Cathar Christologies, he would emphasize that Christ’s true humanity (including material body) is essential to redemption – only genuine incarnation can bridge the gap between divine and human natures.

Aquinas would conclude that dualistic traditions represent sophisticated but ultimately flawed attempts to address genuine spiritual problems (evil, suffering, material limitations) through philosophical systems that compromise fundamental truths about divine unity, creation’s goodness, and human nature. He would see them as particularly dangerous because they appear to take spiritual concerns seriously while actually undermining the metaphysical foundations necessary for genuine spiritual life.

The Four Madhabs (Legal Schools):

Hanafi (8th century, Abu Hanifa)

• Most flexible and reason-based
• Dominant in Turkey, Central Asia, Indian subcontinent
• Emphasizes qiyas (analogical reasoning) and istihsan (juristic preference)
• More accommodating to local customs

Hanbali (9th century, Ahmad ibn Hanbal)

• Most conservative and literalist
• Dominant in Saudi Arabia
• Strict adherence to Quran and Hadith
• Rejects philosophical reasoning in favor of traditional sources

Maliki (8th century, Malik ibn Anas)

• Emphasizes practices of Medina as authoritative
• Dominant in North/West Africa
• Considers maslaha (public interest) in legal reasoning
• Moderate between Hanafi flexibility and Hanbali strictness

Shafi’i (9th century, Al-Shafi’i)

• Systematic methodology balancing text and reason
• Dominant in Egypt, Southeast Asia, East Africa
• Established four sources of law hierarchy: Quran, Hadith, ijma (consensus), qiyas
• Middle path between other schools

Twelver Shia (largest group, ~85% of Shias)

• Believe in twelve divinely-appointed Imams
• Twelfth Imam is „hidden‟ and will return as Mahdi
• Dominant in Iran, Iraq, Lebanon
• Emphasizes ijtihad (independent reasoning) by qualified scholars
• More philosophical tradition than Sunni Islam

Ismaili (smaller group)

• Split from Twelvers over seventh Imam succession
• Led by living Imam (currently Aga Khan)
• More esoteric, philosophical interpretation
• Emphasizes hidden (batin) meanings in religious texts

Alevi (mainly in Turkey)

• Syncretic blend of Shia Islam, Christianity, and pre-Islamic traditions
• Emphasizes Ali’s divinity or semi-divinity
• More mystical, less legalistic
• Often persecuted by orthodox Sunni authorities

Relationship to Orthodox Islam: Often viewed with suspicion by literalist scholars for:

• Claims of direct divine experience
• Veneration of saints and shrines
• Syncretistic practices
• Philosophical interpretations

Core Principles:

• Return to „pure‟ Islam of the salaf (first three generations)
• Strict monotheism (tawhid) – rejects intercession, saint veneration
• Literal interpretation of Quran and Hadith
• Rejects philosophy, mysticism, and theological speculation
• Considers most Islamic history as corruption

Modern Impact: Influences jihadist movements, but most Salafis are non-violent purists focused on personal piety and da’wa (proselytizing).

Aquinas’s Response: This destroys the integrity of secondary causation and natural law. In Summa Contra Gentiles, Aquinas argues that God works through secondary causes, giving creatures real causal power. Islamic occasionalism makes natural science impossible and reduces creation to mere illusion.

2. Against Voluntarism (Divine Command Theory) Islamic ethics often reduce to pure divine command – something is good because God wills it.

Aquinas’s Response: This leads to moral arbitrariness. In Summa Theologica, Aquinas argues that God’s will is guided by His intellect, which grasps eternal truths. Good is not arbitrary but flows from God’s nature as perfect Being. This makes natural law and philosophical ethics possible.

3. Against Denial of Trinity Islam’s strict monotheism rejects the Trinity as polytheism (shirk).

Aquinas’s Response: The Trinity is perfectly consistent with monotheism. In De Trinitate, Aquinas shows that God’s unity is not numerical but ontological – three Persons sharing one divine essence. This explains how God can be both perfectly one and perfectly relational.

4. Against Islamic Determinism Many Islamic schools emphasize divine predestination that seems to negate human freedom.

Aquinas’s Response: In De Malo and Summa Theologica, Aquinas develops a sophisticated account of free will compatible with divine providence. God’s eternal knowledge doesn’t necessitate human choices because divine causation works through, not against, human nature.

2. Against Quranic Authority Aquinas’s Argument: The Quran cannot be divine revelation because:

• It contradicts prior revelation (Old/New Testaments) that Muslims claim to respect
• It contains historical errors and contradictions
• Its theology is philosophically inferior to Christian doctrine
• It was compiled by fallible humans after Muhammad’s death

3. Against Islamic Theological Development Aquinas’s Critique: Islamic theology shows signs of human construction rather than divine revelation:

• Major theological disputes (Sunni/Shia split) immediately after Muhammad’s death
• Influence of Greek philosophy (despite claims of pure revelation)
• Need for extensive hadith literature to supplement Quranic gaps
• Constant reinterpretation through ijtihad and qiyas

4. Against Islamic Eschatology Aquinas’s Response: Islamic paradise is too materialistic and sensual, reflecting human desires rather than divine truth. True beatific vision involves intellectual contemplation of God’s essence, not physical pleasures.

His strategy essentially argues that Islam represents a partial truth that Christianity completes and corrects – a more persuasive approach than outright rejection.

Sadducees

• Priestly aristocracy controlling Temple
• Accepted only written Torah, rejected oral tradition
• Denied resurrection, angels, fate
• Collaborated with Roman authorities
• Disappeared after Temple destruction (70 CE)

Essenes

• Ascetic sect, many lived in desert communities (Qumran)
• Strict purity laws, celibacy, communal property
• Apocalyptic expectations, awaited two Messiahs
• Produced Dead Sea Scrolls
• Likely absorbed into other movements after 70 CE

Zealots

• Militant nationalist movement
• Believed armed resistance against Rome was religious duty
• Led Jewish revolts (66-70 CE and 132-135 CE)
• Considered taxation by pagans as idolatry
• Destroyed along with Jerusalem in 70 CE

Herodians

• Political faction supporting Herod’s dynasty
• Collaborated with Roman rule
• Mentioned in Gospels as opponents of Jesus
• Disappeared after Herodian political power waned

Ebionites

• Jewish Christian sect rejecting Paul’s theology
• Denied Jesus’s divinity, saw him as human messiah
• Maintained strict Torah observance
• Used Hebrew gospel (Gospel of the Hebrews)
• Considered heretical by both mainstream Christianity and Judaism

Bar Kokhba Followers

• Supported Simon bar Kokhba’s messianic claims (132-135 CE)
• Rabbi Akiva proclaimed bar Kokhba as Messiah
• Attempted to rebuild Temple and restore Jewish independence
• Catastrophic failure led to massive Jewish diaspora
• Marked end of Jewish political independence until 1948

Karaites (8th century)

• Rejected oral Torah and Talmudic authority
• „Scripture alone‟ approach (sola scriptura equivalent)
• Founded by Anan ben David in Baghdad
• Significant medieval presence, small modern remnant
• Influenced by Islamic rationalism

Philosophical Schools

• Rationalists: Maimonides, Gersonides (influenced by Aristotle)
• Mystics: Early Kabbalah, Zohar literature
• Pietists: Hasidei Ashkenaz (German pietist movement)

Hasidic Orthodox

• Mystical revival movement (18th century, Baal Shem Tov)
• Emphasizes joy, prayer, and connection to tzaddik (righteous leader)
• Dynasties: Chabad, Satmar, Belz, Ger, etc.
• Often insular communities with distinctive dress/customs

Mitnagdim (Lithuanian Orthodox)

• „Opponents‟ of Hasidism
• Emphasizes Torah scholarship and rational study
• Founded by Vilna Gaon (18th century)
• Intellectual, less mystical approach
• Produced great yeshiva (seminary) system

Modern Orthodox

• Maintains halakha but engages with secular world
• „Torah u-Madda‟ (Torah and Science) synthesis
• Supports Israel, secular education, professional careers
• Allows some accommodation to modern life within halakhic bounds

Conservative/Masorti

• Developed by Zacharias Frankel (19th century)
• „Positive-Historical‟ approach to Judaism
• Halakha is binding but can evolve with historical circumstances
• Ordains women, allows driving on Sabbath (some communities)
• Maintains traditional liturgy with some modifications

Reform Judaism

• Began in 19th century Germany
• Emphasizes ethical teachings over ritual observance
• Rejects halakha as binding, embraces historical criticism
• Ordains women, accepts interfaith marriage (some)
• Focuses on tikkun olam (repairing the world)

Reconstructionist

• Founded by Mordecai Kaplan (20th century)
• Judaism as „religious civilization‟ rather than religion
• Democratic decision-making in Jewish law
• Naturalistic theology (God as cosmic process)
• First movement to ordain women (1974)

Messianic Judaism

• Jews who accept Jesus as Messiah but maintain Jewish identity
• Attempts to combine Christian theology with Jewish practice
• Rejected by mainstream Judaism as Christianity in disguise
• Supported by some Christian evangelical groups
• Controversial status in Jewish and Christian communities

2. Supersession of the Law

• Aquinas’s Argument: Ceremonial law was temporary, pointing toward Christ
• Against Rabbinic Judaism: Continued observance of Temple-related laws is meaningless without Temple
• Theological Point: Moral law remains, but ceremonial/judicial law was fulfilled in Christ

3. Talmudic Authority

• Aquinas’s Critique: Oral Torah developed after Christ cannot have divine authority
• Historical Argument: Rabbinic traditions contradict earlier Jewish practices
• Philosophical Problem: Infinite regress of interpretation without final authority

2. Dispersion and Suffering

• Medieval Argument: Jewish exile and suffering demonstrate divine judgment
• Aquinas’s View: This fulfills Jesus’s prophecy about Jerusalem’s destruction
• Theological Implication: Jews remain in covenant but not as chosen people

3. Prophetic Fulfillment

• Timing Arguments: Daniel’s „70 weeks‟ prophecy points to Jesus’s era
• Messiah’s Characteristics: Jesus better fulfills prophetic expectations than bar Kokhba or other claimants
• Universal Mission: Hebrew Bible’s universal themes fulfilled in Christianity’s spread

2. Incarnation and Transcendence

• Against Jewish Separation: God can unite with humanity without compromising divine nature
• Aquinas’s Argument: Incarnation shows God’s love and justice simultaneously
• Superiority: Christianity offers both divine transcendence and immanence

3. Natural Law

• Aquinas’s Framework: Christians can engage philosophical reasoning about ethics
• Against Particularism: Jewish law is too particular, Christian natural law is universal
• Rational Religion: Christianity harmonizes faith and reason better than Judaism

Aquinas’s approach toward Judaism was more respectful than toward Islam, recognizing Jews as preparing for Christ’s coming, but he still considered post-Christian Judaism as stubbornly incomplete, missing the fulfillment of their own scriptures.

Russian Orthodox

• Largest Orthodox Church (100+ million)
• Moscow Patriarchate claims leadership role
• Survived Soviet persecution, now state-favored
• Strong mystical/ascetical tradition
• Politically influential in post-Soviet states

Serbian Orthodox

• Survived Ottoman rule, Austrian-Hungarian period
• Strong national identity component
• Significant role in Yugoslav wars
• Maintains traditional liturgy and practices

Other Major Churches:

• Romanian Orthodox (second largest)
• Bulgarian Orthodox
• Georgian Orthodox
• Antiochian Orthodox (Middle East)
• Orthodox Church in America (autocephalous status disputed)

Major Branches:

• Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod (conservative)
• Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (liberal)
• Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (very conservative)

Major Branches:

• Presbyterian Church (USA) (liberal)
• Presbyterian Church in America (conservative)
• Orthodox Presbyterian Church (very conservative)
• Dutch Reformed Church

Major Branches:

• Church of England (established church)
• Episcopal Church USA (liberal)
• Anglican Church in North America (conservative)
• Sydney Anglican (evangelical)

Major Branches:

• Southern Baptist Convention (largest Protestant denomination in US)
• American Baptist Churches USA (more liberal)
• Independent Fundamental Baptist (very conservative)
• Primitive Baptist (hyper-Calvinist)

Major Branches:

• United Methodist Church (largest, liberal)
• African Methodist Episcopal
• Free Methodist Church (conservative)
• Wesleyan Church (holiness movement)

Major Branches:

• Assemblies of God (largest organized Pentecostal)
• Church of God in Christ (largest black Pentecostal)
• International Church of the Foursquare Gospel
• Oneness Pentecostals (reject Trinity)

Armenian Apostolic

• Catholicos of All Armenians (Echmiadzin)
• First nation to officially adopt Christianity (301 CE)
• Survived Ottoman persecution, Armenian Genocide
• Strong cultural-religious identity
• Distinctive architecture and art

Ethiopian Orthodox

• Abune (Patriarch of Ethiopia)
• Unique practices: Saturday Sabbath, circumcision, dietary laws
• Influenced by Jewish traditions
• Kebra Nagast (Glory of Kings) – claims Solomonic lineage
• Survived Islamic expansion, Italian occupation

Other Oriental Orthodox:

• Syriac Orthodox (Middle East)
• Malankara Orthodox (India)
• Eritrean Orthodox

Major Branches:

• Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Utah-based, largest)
• Community of Christ (Missouri-based, formerly RLDS)
• Fundamentalist LDS (polygamous offshoots)

Controversial Aspects:

• Polytheism: Multiple gods, God was once human
• Additional Scripture: Pearl of Great Price, Doctrine & Covenants
• Temple Rituals: Secret ceremonies, masonic influences
• Changing Doctrines: Racial restrictions, polygamy reversals

Organizational Structure:

• Watchtower Society: Governing body claims divine authority
• Theocratic Ministry: Door-to-door evangelism required
• Disfellowshipping: Shunning of former members
• End Times: Repeated failed predictions of Armageddon

2. Filioque Clause

• Aquinas’s Defense: Holy Spirit proceeds from Father „and Son‟ (filioque)
• Theological Argument: Maintains distinction between Son and Spirit
• Against Orthodox: „From Father alone‟ makes Son and Spirit too similar
• Scriptural Support: John 15:26, 16:7 show Son’s role in Spirit’s mission

3. Clerical Celibacy

• Aquinas’s Support: Celibacy allows complete dedication to ministry
• Against Married Priests: Divided loyalties between family and flock
• Theological Argument: Priests represent Christ, who was celibate
• Practical Advantage: Prevents hereditary church offices

2. Justification by Faith Alone

• Aquinas’s Position: Faith must be accompanied by charity (love)
• Against Luther: Faith without works is dead (James 2:26)
• Theological Argument: Justification involves real transformation, not just imputation
• Sacramental Necessity: Baptism actually removes original sin

3. Predestination (Calvinism)

• Aquinas’s Critique: Double predestination makes God author of evil
• Against Limited Atonement: Christ died for all humanity
• Free Will Defense: God’s grace enables but doesn’t compel response
• Scriptural Support: 1 Timothy 2:4 – God wills all to be saved

2. Against Jehovah’s Witnesses

• Trinity Defense: Jesus is truly God (John 1:1, 8:58)
• Against Arianism: Condemned at Nicaea (325 CE)
• Scriptural Interpretation: Watchtower translations distort Greek text
• Organizational Critique: False prophets by biblical standards

2. Historical Continuity

• Argues for unbroken apostolic succession
• Shows development of doctrine rather than corruption
• Demonstrates Catholic Church’s unique authority claims

3. Scriptural Interpretation

• Uses Church Fathers and councils for authoritative interpretation
• Shows how Catholic practices flow from scriptural foundations
• Demonstrates dangers of private interpretation

4. Sacramental Theology

• Shows how Catholic sacraments convey grace ex opere operato
• Critiques Protestant reduction of sacraments to symbols
• Demonstrates necessity of ordained priesthood

Aquinas’s approach treats Eastern Orthodox with more respect (as preserving apostolic succession) than Protestants (who broke succession) or Restorationists (who claim false revelations), but maintains Catholic superiority in all cases through philosophical rigor and historical continuity.